Will they march again for their country? Compulsory services are gaining a new interest for government leaders in Europe.
Compulsory military service is a deeply rooted and evolving feature of European defense, shaped by historical legacies, shifting geopolitical threats, and current debates over national security. This essay explores the conscription models, current policies, and debated futures in Norway, Sweden, Denmark, England, France, Italy, Portugal, Spain, Greece, and Turkey—with special attention to how new Russian threats are compelling a widespread re-evaluation of European conscription models.
The Landscape of Conscription: National Approaches
Conscription policies across Europe have long reflected each nation’s history, geopolitical exposure, and values. In Scandinavia, Norway and Sweden maintain robust systems, emphasizing broad civic participation. Norway, for example, requires men and women to serve for 12–19 months, though only a fraction of eligible youth are actually conscripted—selection is based on aptitude and motivation, creating a highly professionalized conscript force (source) (source). Sweden, after suspending its draft in 2010, reintroduced gender-neutral conscription in 2017; its model similarly combines mandatory service with selectivity, drawing in under half of each eligible cohort for up to 15 months, depending on military branch (source) (source).
Denmark has balanced forward-looking reforms and tradition. From July 2025, conscription applies to both men and women aged 18. Service, typically 4–12 months, is generally fulfilled through a lottery system, but national defense needs may prompt expanded activation (source). Greece and Turkey maintain among the most comprehensive systems, with service for almost all young men (nine months in Greece, six to twelve in Turkey). In both countries, alternative civilian options exist but are less common (source) (source).
In much of Western and Southern Europe, conscription was rolled back after the Cold War. England (UK), France, Italy, Portugal, and Spain had broadly transitioned towards professional volunteer militaries by the early 2000s. Yet, each nation preserves unique forms of civic or reserve service: France launched the Universal National Service (SNU), emphasizing civic duty with military exposure for youth (source); Italy, Portugal, and Spain offer professionalized armed forces but periodically reopen the debate over voluntary, reserve, or emergency re-impositions of service (source).
| Country | Status (2025) | Duration | Gender | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Norway | Yes | 12–19 months | M/F | Selective; both genders (link) |
| Sweden | Yes | 7–15 months | M/F | Selective; reintroduced for both genders (link) |
| Denmark | Yes | 4–12 months | M/F | Now includes women; lottery system (link) |
| United Kingdom | No | — | — | All-volunteer force |
| France | No (military) | — | — | SNU program (civic + military exposure) (link) |
| Italy | No | — | — | All-volunteer force; reserves |
| Portugal | No | — | — | All-volunteer force |
| Spain | No | — | — | All-volunteer force; reserves |
| Greece | Yes | 9 months | M | Most men serve; civil option rare (link) |
| Turkey | Yes | 6–12 months | M | Most men serve; some reductions allowed (link) |
Renewed Threats: Security Fears and Policy Debates
Russia’s full-scale invasion of Ukraine in 2022 and its continued saber-rattling in 2025 dramatically reshaped European security calculations (source) (source). Countries geographically close to Russia or hosting key NATO assets—like Norway, Denmark, and the Baltic region—report drastically increased drone incursions, cyber-attacks, and military demonstrations (source) (source).
This context has led to significant public and political debate about the sufficiency of professional volunteer armed forces versus mass conscripted models. Germany and France, both formerly conscript armies, have seen policymakers revisit or creatively expand national service to address new requirements for resilience, hybrid defense, and societal mobilization (source) (source).
For Southern and Western Europe, the Russian threat fostered a renewed focus on interoperability within NATO and the EU’s own Rapid Deployment Capacity, set for operationalization in 2025. However, debate rages over whether trained professionals or a mass trained reserve will provide Europe’s deterrent backbone (source) (source).
Evolving Models: Flexibility, Civic Integration, and Gender
Contemporary European conscription systems exhibit increasing flexibility. Selectivity, alternating service options, inclusivity, and alignment with civil society priorities are becoming mainstream.
- Gender inclusivity is now standard in Scandinavia: both Sweden and Denmark conscript women as of 2025, positioning themselves at the forefront of European gender parity in defense (source) (source). Norway had already achieved near parity in its selective conscription system (source).
- Civil alternatives, though uneven among countries, have grown in both scope and societal legitimacy, especially in Scandinavia and Greece (source).
- There is a broad trend towards shorter, intensive service periods focused on readiness for rapid mobilization: this fits NATO’s strategic requirement for deployable, well-trained forces while maintaining peacetime economic rationality (source) (source).
- Non-military national service, such as France’s SNU or Germany’s proposed “social year,” is gaining political traction as a way to blend defense preparation with national cohesion and hybrid security needs (source) (source).
In contrast, Turkey and Greece emphasize universal, traditional male conscription as essential to national identity and security—though both permit payments or alternative service under certain circumstances (source) (source).
Facing Moscow: The Future of Conscription in Europe
As hybrid and military threats from Russia intensify, European countries are discussing new and old forms of mass readiness (source) (source) (source). The prospect of further aggression—demonstrated through Zapad-2025 exercises and ongoing drone sabotage in NATO airspace—compels policymakers across Europe to reevaluate the credibility, scale, and societal resilience provided by conscription models.
Outlook trends include:
- Selective Expansion: Countries with selective conscription (Norway, Sweden, Denmark) may further increase annual intakes or intensify preparatory programs for broader contingencies (source).
- Partial Reintroduction: States without conscription (Germany, France, Italy, Portugal, Spain, UK) may pursue “selective mobilization”—using reserve registration, rapid volunteer call-ups, or a “draft-lite” model for crises (source) (source) (source).
- Strengthening NATO-EU Interoperability: Enhanced emphasis on joint training, strategic reserves, and harmonized mobilization procedures across the EU and NATO (source) (source).
- Hybrid Service Models: Wider acceptance of flexible service—military/civic combinations, gender parity, tailored readiness for high-tech and hybrid warfare (source) (source).
- Societal Resilience: Policymakers increasingly view conscription (military or civic) as a means to foster resilient societies equipped for whole-of-nation defense against cyber, informational, and kinetic threats (source) (source) (source).
There is, nevertheless, high national variation. Nordic and Baltic states will likely continue to expand or maintain robust forms of selective conscription, while Southern and Western Europe weigh reserves, rapid call-up systems, and hybrid civic-military approaches. In Greece and Turkey, traditional forms of universal male conscription will persist until the security environment fundamentally changes (source) (source).
Mobilizing for a Contested Future
Compulsory military service in Europe today is neither a relic of the past nor uniform across the continent; it is a dynamic, adaptive instrument shaped by strategic necessity, national values, and perceived threat. Russian actions since 2022 have underscored the enduring security imperatives behind conscription, prompting many states to reconsider or recalibrate existing models. As Europe faces an era of persistent and evolving threats, flexible, inclusive, and integrated forms of conscription—paired with innovative civic service—are likely to underpin its security strategies for the coming decade (source) (source) (source) (source) (source) (source).
